Directoire & Consulat Furniture
1793 - 1804
It is generally accepted that the Directoire and Consulat period extends from 1793 to 1804 although there are some that may dispute the exact end date. The furniture of both the Directorate and Consulat periods directly reflect the great effect of the Revolution of 1789 on the design of French furniture. It is a much more restrained and simplified version of the neo classical Louis XVI style that preceded it and used more limited decoration and less expensive materials. The decoration typically used on Directoire and Consulat furniture furniture was a variation of the classically inspired ornamentation of the late 18th century. However, marquetry and parquetry inlays were all but abandoned in favor of much more simple forms of decorative work.
Directoire Furniture
Many geometric patterns continued to be used but were less extravagant than before, often integrating a Grecian urn into the designs. Notable is the introduction of Egyptian motifs into the furniture design of this period. Furniture created during the Directoire and Consulat often included carvings of cobras, sphinxes, hieroglyphics and palms in the bronze hardware detailing.
The furniture of the Directorate and the Consulat period is often considered to reflect the transition between the Louis XVI period and the designs of the first French Empire. As such, it exhibits characteristics of both styles yet has its' own special psychology.
The Directoire and Consulat mark the early beginnings of the First Empire Period.
Directoire & Consulat Interiors
Both interior decoration and architecture found themselves in especially good accord during the Directorate & Consulat period as well as the beginning of the later Empire era heralded in by Napoleon I. When thinking of the interiors of rooms, it is the Directoire or Consulate designs that are very often unconciously thought of when people think of something that is called "French design".
French Directoire Interior
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French Empire Furniture
1804 - 1814
The French Empire style, or First Empire, was developed during the reign of Napoleon I. "It's so modern!" vistitors exclaimed upon seeing Josephine Bonaparte's dining room at the Chateau de Malmaison outside Paris. The style was a actually a revival of Greek, Roman and Egyptian motifs which had begun in the neo-classical period of Louis XVI and extended through the Directoire & Consulat periods. The Empire style in France was paralleled in England during the period of Regency furniture and also in American Empire furniture.
French Empire Interior
Chateau de Fountainbleau
Characteristics
of French Empire Furniture
The wreath, acanthus leaf (leaf of a Mediterranean shrub), torch, Sphinx, Greek band, anthemion (honeysuckle), columns and scroll supports predominated in 1st Empire furniture. Classic shapes or lines and classical decorations in chiseled bronze, called ormolu, were notable attempts in the neoclassic style. The subjects for ormolu decorations were taken from Greek mythology and were often combined with emblems of liberty, eagles, lyres, rosettes, and so forth.
Erench Empire Table 1812
Mahogany, on a frame of oak and poplar. Top with Rosso antico marble slab. Note the Egyptian infuence and decoration.mounts.
There was also the use of much fine brass inlaying of figures on Empire furniture. Marquetry and parquetry inlays and carving were discarded and plain surfaces were decorated with brass and ormolu mounts of antique emblems. Mahogany was the principal wood of choice and there was considerable use of veneering.
On some French empire furniture we also see fine "turning", not spiral, but in a round style which can be seen in the legs of sofa on which Madame Recamier reclines in the well known portrait of her by Jacques Louis David, as in the picture below. David, who was court painter under Louis XVI, became the prime infuence during the Empire period and eventually a kind of artistic dictator of this movement to revive the classical.
Madame Recamier
Influence of Napoleon on French Empire Design
In 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte had himself anointed and crowned Emperor of France. He considered himself the greatest ruler since Julius Caesar and wanted to be surrounded by the pomp and dignity associated with the great generals of ancient Rome. He was especially proud of his conquests of Italy and Egypt and proudly considered himself as the first worthy successor to Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar.
Emperor Napoleon's Bedroom
Chateau de Fountainbleu
Upon his return from Borne and Egypt, furniture made for his palaces reflected the styles he had seen in both places. As such, many pieces of so called late First Empire furniture were in reality just slavish imitations of what had been made for another time and different conditions.
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French Restauration Furniture
Louis XVIII: 1815-1824 & Charles X: 1824 - 1830
The styles and design associated with the Restauration of the Bourbon Monarchy, and the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, are for the most part aligned with those of the earlier Empire period. However, this period is sometimes vewed as a decline into decadence.
Dressing Table, circa 1825
Solid mahogany, veneered on beech, oak and poplar, with lacquered brass mounts and a white marble top.
This type of dressing table, with mirror attached, was a form developed in the early years of the 19th century, and some exceptionally grand examples were made by Parisian cabinetmakers, for example Jacob - Desmalter & Cie and Francois Remond.
At the beginning of the Restauration period, under Louis XVIII, furniture was still being designed mostly in the Empire style. The only notable difference were the symbols of Napoleon I which were used during his reign. These were no longer used for obvious reasons.
While cabinetmakers continued to employ the strong geometrical patterns of the earlier Empire period, a softer version of the Empire style came into vogue at this time. Cabinetmakers began adding some amount of whimsy and fantasy in their designs such as musical instruments that were carved into the legs of small tables and desks. The use of mahogany declined and woods were lighter in both color and density. The fine art of marquetry and parquetry returned in the form of decorative flowers, garlands and rosettes along with detailing that was intended to highlight the architecture and geometry of furniture.
Restauration Commode, circa 1825
Mahogany veneered on oak and poplar, with lacquered brass mounts and a white marble top.
During this period, furniture making slowed down due to a combination of economic uncertainty added to the fact that furniture was not a focus of the French kings of this period. Rooms and interiors were designed with more emphasis on comfort than display and the old practice of keeping seating furniture against the walls was all but abandoned.
Smaller sized articles of furniture were created with "Bateau" (boat shaped) beds, gondola chairs and three-legged tables being important items of early 19th century French furniture.
During the reign of Charles X the use of "bois clair", or blond woods, became popular and dark wood marquetry with palmette motifs was used for decorative effect rather than bronze. To create the effects of contrast, light French and exotic wood were used such as burr ash or elm, flecked maple, satinwood, sycamore and walnut together with rosewood, ebony and mahogany.
Notable craftmen of the Restauration period included F.H. Jacob, F. Baudry, the Jeanselmes, L.F. Puteaux, F. Remond and Werner.
Sometimes what is termed the Restauration period sometimes includes the era
of Louis Philippe which is which is covered in the following section.
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Louis Philippe Furniture
1830 - 1848
The Louis Philippe style in France followed the same general pattern as the furniture of the French Restauration. However, in direct contrast to the light tones of Charles X there is a darkening of colors and more emphasis on comfort. Natural wood was used both in the solid form and in veneering.
Louis Philippe Chair, circa 1830
Cathedral Style
A notable fashion in the Louis Philippe furniture period was the Cathedral Style or "style a la cathedrale" which came to prominence around 1825. Louis Philippe chairs kept the same shape consistent with the period but were now being decorated with gothic architectural designs in sculpted form. These chairs featured crenelated top rails (repeated square indentations) and foliate spandrels. Industrialization in France and the rest of the word was beginning and decorative details were now usually carved by machines. As a result, these carvings exhibited a somewhat "flatter" appearance.
During the reign of Louis Philippe, the color, grain, and quality of the wood became more a focus of design. Wood was painted in black, decorated with gilt with painted decoration, and sometimes veneered.
Jardiniere, 1835
Clear, light wood lost out to darker woods. Mahogany and palissandre (African Blackwood) were still used while ebony and other darkened wood such as beech and pear tree came into use. Sycamore, wild cherry, eye of elm, maple, root of thuya (arborvitae) if reddish in color, were also common woods of the era.
Gothic Cabinet, 1836
The Gothic cathedral style is but one example of the popularity of reproduction furniture which is covered in the following section on the era of Napoleon III.
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French Reproduction Furniture
Napoleon III,
1848 - 1870
The era of Louis Napoleon, called the Emperor of the French, is commonly known as the Second French Empire. This period constituted the peak of the popularity of reproduction furniture in France. Much the same occured during the same time period in late Victorian England.
French Cabinet, 1865
Ebony, partly veneered on oak, with inlay and carved decoration in box, lime, holly, pear, walnut, mahogany and hardstones.
Reproduction Period Styles
A great number of revival styles competed with one another during this period. Renaissance revival and the furniture styles of Henri II, reproduction Boulle furniture of the baroque period, and revivals in rococo and neoclassic Louis XVI furniture were all included in the competition.
Gueridon, 1870
Solid mahogany and mahogany veneered on oak, with inset plaque of porcelain or bone china and gilt-bronze mounts.
This stand was made to support a reading light or as an occasional table. Such pieces are sometimes known by the French name "gueridon", a term originally used in the 17th century to describe a circular tray on a pillar, made of carved and gilded wood, used to support a candelabrum.
Rococo Revival
From about 1840 the era of Rococo furniture in France was revived from its 100 year old hiatus. The main features of this reproduction style included the use of cabriole legs, fanciful and whimsical carvings such as the cockleshell, curved surfaces, the use of "C" and "S" scrolls along with other motifs that had seen such popularity during the rococo or Louis XV period.
Rococo Revival Chairs
Renaissance Revival
In great part, the Renaissance revival came about due to the influence exercised by Napoleon III himself. The influence he exerted was motivated in large degree by a personal desire to have his name associated with the classical grandeur of ancient Rome along with aspirations to cement for himself a place in the history of France.
The main attributes of the revival in the Renaissance style were carved and ornamented decoration which saw particular use in the dining room and bedroom furniture of the period.
Renaissance Revival Easy Chairs
The insatiable demand for reproduction furniture during this period evidenced a general lack of innovation which continued in France through the remaining years of the 19th century.
Still, it was during this time that many masterpieces were created by the likes of master cabinetmakers such as Francois Linke. Born in Bohemia in 1855, he arrived in Paris at the age of twenty and is sometimes considered the most important and influential French and European cabinetmaker of the late 19th and early 20th Century. Possibly the most sought after cabinetmaker of this period, the essential theme of his work was sculptural, in a modernized Louis XV style with a hint of the contemporary 'art nouveau' style that was beginning to emerge in the later part of the century.
Pair of Dore' Bronze Mounted Vitrines
by Francois Linke
It wasn't until the rise of the Art Nouveau furniture movement which finally took hold in the last years of the 19th century that we begin to see a truly new style taking its'place in the history of French and European furniture.
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